Table 1 Studies of human autoimmune diseases using helminth parasites or by-products in animal models

Type 1 Diabetes

(T1D)

Schistosoma mansoni soluble egg/worm antigen

Non-obese Diabetic (NOD) mice

Effective when administered at 4 weeks of age. Causes decrease interleukin-12 (IL-12) and increase IL-10 production

[32]

Trichinella spiralis

NOD mice

Provides protection mainly by a prejudiced Th2 response coupled with an IL-10 response

[33]

Heligmosomoides polygyrus

Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced

T1D mouse model

Protective effects against hyperglycemia and decrease in pancreatic islet size through Th2 independent mechanisms

[34]

Fasciola hepatica excretory secretory antigen

NOD mice

Promotes interferon-γ (IFN-γ) suppression and modulates macrophage activity

[35]

Litomosoides sigmodontis antigen

NOD mice

Antigen administration with intranasal pro-insulin dose increases Treg cell frequency and decreases pancreatic islet inflammation

[36]

Brugia malayi antigen

STZ induced T1D mouse model

rBmALT-2 decreases tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IFN-γ levels, and increases IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 production by splenocytes

[18]

Schistosoma japonicum antigen (Cystatin and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase)

NOD mice

Disease amelioration by decreasing IFN-γ and increasing Th2 cytokines, Tregs, IL-10 and TGF-β

[37]

Rheumatoid arthritis

(RA)

Nippostrongylus brasiliensis

Murphy Roths Large (MRL) lpr mice

Parasitic infections decrease the incidence and severity of arthritis. Increased serum concentration of IL-4 and IgG1 are noted

[38]

Fasciola gigantica somatic antigen (Fg-Ag) and Gigantocotyle explanatum (Ge-Ag) somatic antigen

Collagen induced arthritis (CIA) rats

Therapeutically, Ge-Ag is more effective than Fg-Ag, demonstrated by reducted serum TNF-α and IFN-γ levels and increased serum IL-4 and IL-10 levels

[39]

Schistosoma mansoni

IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra)-deficient mice

Mitigates disease impact by decreasing IL-17 and TNF-α while increasing IL-4 and IL-10 splenic responses

[40]

Acanthocheilonema viteae ES-62

CIA mice

Downregulation of IL-1β and decrease in inflammasome activity at the site of infection

[15, 41];

Schistosoma japonicum peptide SJMHE1

DBA/1 J mice

Peptides with minimal side effects effectively suppress collagen-induced arthritis symptoms by downregulating IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL−6, IL-17, and IL-22, and upregulating IL-10 and CD4⁺ Tregs

[42]

Clonorchis sinensis metacercariae

CIA mice

Aggravated arthritis due to increased neutrophils and monocytes while decreased B cells and CD4⁺ T cells count

[19]

Trichinella spiralis MES

CIA mice

ES products inhibit M1 macrophage polarization and proinflammatory cytokines in CIA mice, thereby reducing bone destruction and inhibits osteoclastogenesis in infected joints

[43]

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

Schistosoma mansoni ova

Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) Mice

Immune response polarization; decrease in IFN-r, TNF-α, IL-12, and increase in IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β; Th2 response was observed

[44]

Schistosoma japonicum Soluble Egg Antigen (SEA)

EAE Mice

Ameliorates disease by decreasing IFN-γ and increasing IL-4 production in the CNS and spleen

[45]

Taenia crassiceps

EAE Mice

Decreases IL-17 and TNF-α production and increases IL-4 and IL-10 production

[46]

Toxascaris leonina recombinant galectin (rTl-gal)

EAE Mice

Prevents EAE remission by markedly increasing CD45R/B220⁺B cell numbers and decreasing TNF-α and IFN-γ

[47]

Fasciola hepatica FhHDM-1 peptide

NOD/Lt mice

Ameliorates disease by reducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF and IL-6

[48]

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

(IBD)

Schistosoma mansoni egg antigen

Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) induced colitis in mice

It reduces disease effect by increasing FoxP3⁺ T regulatory cells and Th2 cytokine production

[49]

Heligmosomoides polygyrus ES 55 kDa antigen

DSS induced colitis in BALB/c mice

Antigen treatment modulates IL-10 production, thereby reducing inflammation caused by DSS-induced colitis

[50]

Hymenolepis diminuta

DNBS induced colitis in BALB/c mice

The helminth-infected mice showed increased IL-4 and IL-10 production

[51]

Trichinella spiralis Cystatin

Trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) induced colitis in BALB/c mice

Protection was achieved via an induced Th2-type response

[52]

Hymenolepis diminuta

Dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS) induced colitis in mice

A skewed Th2 response was observed

[53]

Schistosoma japonicum peptide SJMHE1

C57BL/6 mice

The peptide demonstrates protective effects against both acute and chronic colitis induced by DSS

[20]

Echinococcus granulosus sensu strict and Antigen B

DSS infected BALB/c mice

A reduction in clinical symptoms was achieved owing to increased F4/80⁺ CD206⁺ and decreased F4/80⁺ CD11c⁺ in the intestine

[54]

Clonorchis sinensis cysteine proteases (rCsCP and CsCA)

DSS induced colitis in mice

Ameliorates colitis by upregulating IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13 and downregulating IL-12b, IL-23r, IL-7, and IL-17A production

[55]